To get both blinkenlights for registers and tri-state for bus driving, use two ’574 chips in parallel rather than a ’377 behind a ’245. Tie the clock and input lines together on both. Tie the output enable low on the one driving the blinkenlights. This way the chip that the rest of the CPU depends on doesn’t have the extra work of driving any load and you only have one chip’s worth of propagation delays.

I always applaud homebrew cpu designs but after doing so many myself I would reaaaaly advice to stay away from dip chips/breadboards/wirewraps and any attempts to put it into real physical world. Taking a build out of a logisim/verilog to real world in chips sucks away all the fun about cpu design - suddenly you have to deal with invisible issues like timing, glitchy half-dead chip, bad wire connection, etc. these are not challenges, just mundane dull work. The only exception to „stay in the sim“ rule is if you want to make an „art statement“, i.e. like BMOW (or my relay cpu https://github.com/artemonster/relay-cpu/blob/main/images/fr... /shamelessplug)

Hi Will, absolutely amazing this, I love the 'money shot' up front, there are days my desk and yours could be swapped without either of us realizing right away what happened.

The Rigol deserves a blog post of its own, I've got one too and the better I get in using it the more I'm amazed at what it can do.

I've run into the same 'all you can get is SMD' which is fine for when you're finished but a lot harder while you're still figuring things out. This is where 'proper engineers' can go straight to the finish line and I always struggle.

You also develop some kind of sixth sense for when something is misbehaving. If you haven't read it yet, 'The Soul of a New Machine' might be to your liking.

best of luck with your project!

Oh, and I did read all the way to the end.

Of course while you're doing the next version you should knock out a tiny tapeout version, it should easily fit in a single cell (maybe 2 if you want to push the 256 byte sram in as well)

You have to be a little mad to do this but exceptionally mad to do it on at least 8 independent breadboards using no less than 4 different styles of jumper wire!

> It’s a standalone tool that lives outside the computer. I put the EEPROM into the socket, and connect via serial to my laptop to upload the binary files.

Huh, I guess I never really thought about it, but how did they program the first CPUs? Like how did they overcome the chicken/egg situation?

When you design the final board, consider making two boards - one for all your logic, and a separate one for all your user-facing I/O - blinkenlights, toggles, buttons, and so on, with something like a ribbon cable connection for them. Being able to separately mount your I/O from your logic board gives you more freedom when it comes time to put the whole thing into some kind of case.

Nice read, thanks for sharing.

Also tried to homebrew CPUs before but couldn't even start due to a wall of things to prepare;

Seeing this is just amazing to be honest. Wish you a luck on your project!

The first image I saw gave me considerable anxiety and dread lol. I am so impressed, and have always wanted to do something like this. I took a digital logic course in university that was an absolute blast. I never wanted to stop there, but ultimately ended up doing so. However, just looking at all those wires made me feel a sense of, "Maybe I won't do this after all."

Hello Will, interesting read, and happy to see 8-bit breadboard builds on HN. I used to follow Ben and James years ago and built a fully functional 256-byte ROM/RAM cpu that could accept instructions from Arduino as a IO input. I gave up on extending output to add a mini OLED. Cool to see your project and can't wait for part 4.

The unfortunate reality of building these home-brew CPUs is that almost all of the "medium integration" ICs are long out of production - things like the 74181 ALU slice, carry lookahead adders, 16-way register files, etc.

Makes doing things larger than 8/16 bit computers very complicated and usually very slow :(

Any time I see rounded corners on a PCB I know someone put love into that board. Well done

This is very cool. And I found it timely since I also have embarked on a similar journey to build an analog computer—and gone through similar steps of breadboarding, ordering PCBs (iterating and iterating).

And no shit, Claude has helped with a lot of the EE stuff that I was only semi-knowledgeable about. I want to pursue a multiplier unit using log/anti-log circuits and an LLM suggests multiplying with PWM. For another module I complain about the cost of a 16-bit ADC and the LLM suggests a 12-bit drop-in replacement that costs half as much. I want sine and cosine and the LLM suggests using diodes/resistors to "shape" a voltage to approximate a sine curve—rattles off the resistor values needed.

I breadboard first everything the LLM suggests, dig around on the internet to see if the idea is legit/sound, and in the process have learned an enormous amount about electronics in general.

IIUC, that's what sci-fi LED panels of really old computers were. They showed all the internal statuses of the CPU as well as CPU-RAM bus. And the toggle switches allowed individual bit overrides.

The operator sets a CPU RESET switch to RESET, then powers on the machine, and start toggling RAM address and data switches, like HHLL HLLH HHHL LLLL. The operator then press and release the STEP push switch. The address 0b 1100 1001 is now set to 0b 1110 0000. This is repeated until the desired program or a bootloader is all complete. The operator finally sets CPU RESET to Normal, and CLOCK dial to RUN.

The CPU exits reset state, initializes program counter with reset vector, e.g. 0b1000, and start executing instruction at PC++. 1000, 1001, 1010, so on. Then oh no, the EXCEPTION indicator comes on, the LED shows 0b 1110 0000. That's divide r0 by 0, etc.

They didn't actually spend every half a day toggling those switches. They loaded their equivalents of bare minimum BIOS recovery code, then the rest wad loaded from magnetic or mechanical tapes. Only when computers were booted up blank slate or crashed and in need of debugging, the users resorted to that interface.

If they had the CPU-RAM main bus split into ROM and RAM address ranges in such ways that setting address to reset vector will yield the first byte of a BIOS program lithographically etched into the ROM chip, then simply powering on the machine will do the same thing as loading the BIOS manually.

There were also things like magnetic core memories. They didn't require lithography to fabricate, and there were both ROM and RAM kinds of those.

    When the LOAD button on the 1402 Card Read-Punch is pressed, a
    card is read into memory locations 001–080, a word mark is set
    in location 001 to indicate that it is an executable instruction,
    the word marks in locations 002-080 (if any) are cleared, and
    execution starts with the instruction at location 001. [...] To
    read subsequent cards, an explicit Read command (opcode 1) must
    be executed as the last instruction on every card to get the new
    card's contents into locations 001–080.

Actual application code was hardwired, entered manually with switches and lights, or with punch cards. Later, when ICs were sufficiently advanced, mask-programmed ROMs/PLAs.

When I was building embedded controllers with 6502 processors in the 1970s and 1980s we used UV erasable EPROMS and a programmer (my own design) with a ZIF socket built on an expansion board in an Apple ][. The prototype board also had a ZIF socket but the production boards would have ordinary DIL sockets, our production volume was too low to warrant ordering actual ROMS so we used the UV erasable ones and put a metallised sticker over the window.

All programming was done on the Apple in 6502 assembler. It took 45 minutes to assemble an 8kB rom image. This meant that you took extreme care to think about what the code was doing as assembling a new image was often the most time consuming part of the Edit-Assemble-Test loop.

Here is a blog post describing how to do it with a PDP8. Note: he used an assembler but in those days you had do translate to machine code by hand.

https://raymii.org/s/articles/Toggling_in_a_simple_program_o...

For the microcode ROMs they can just be “hardwired” with a zillion simpler gates. This has the added benefit of supporting way higher clock speed. For my planned program ROM you would either have to input manually like the first computers, or use other things like punch cards or your computer would be again “hardwired” to load programs from some other media

I'm going off memory (of a book, not that I was alive in the 40s, ha) so grain of salt etc but I believe the very earliest (edit: electronic, digital) computers were literally rewired every time they need to be re-programmed.

He says that's for microcode ROMs though? As opposed to a user program written in machine code that you would use the CPU to execute. I don't believe ancient CPUs had microcode. Everything was implemented in hardware.

Plugboards! Think telephone exchange but used as a ROM.